The Parts of a House

Posted by on 12/ 11/ 15

THE CRAFT OF CARPENTRY HAS A LONG AND HONORABLE HERITAGE. Ages be Гоге we began recording our history, our ancestors were shaping and joining materials to create various types of shelters. Today, we are the fortunate inheritors of centuries of accumulated knowledge, experience, skills, and tools. Although carpentry continues to be transformed by technology (from computer-aided design programs to cordless tools and pneumatic nailers), many basic tools and techniques remain unchanged.

It still takes a human hand wrapped around a hammer handle to build a decent place to live.

Like basic carpentry tools, many parts of the house have stayed the same over the years. Technology has improved some of the parts, as well as created new ones. But the house is still the same basic structure it always was. Before you start building a house, it’s essential to learn the common language spoken on construction sites and in home centers, lumberyards, and building-supply stores.

Tool-Buying Tips

When 1 started working as a carpenter in the late ’40s, almost every task was done with hand tools. I remember spending hours cutting a pile of 2x4s to length with a crosscut saw. Floors were sheathed with 1x6s, both ends of which had to be cut at 45-degree angles. Cutting all the pieces of a house by hand was a big job, to say the least. In 1950, when I bought my first circular saw, my world as a carpenter changed forever.

 

The Parts of a House

The Parts of a HouseПодпись:

But what began as a boon (the prolifera­tion of new and better tools) has over the years also become downright bewildering. These da vs, the number of tools on the market can make buying tools a difficult task. Each time 1 walk into a tool center or receive a tool catalog in the mail, 1 am amazed by the dizzy­ing array of carpentry tools offered for sale. When there are 50 different models, even buy­ing something as basic as a hammer can be frustrating.

BINDER

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In this section, we will examine the different types of bituminous binders used in SMAs and methods for selecting one.

3.3.1 Types of Applied Binders

Various SMA binders may be seen in the highway engineering practices of many countries. These binders can be divided into paving grade bitumens (unmodified), polymer-modified bitumens (PMB), and special binders (multigrade and others).[16]

Paving grade bitumens are frequently used. In Europe the most commonly used binder is the penetration graded 50/70 type, and to a lesser extent the 70/100 type. Performance graded binders are routinely used in the United States and may or may not be polymer modified, depending on the base asphalt, the desired range of temperatures at which the binder is expected to perform, and the anticipated traffic level.

Polymer-modified bitumens are increasingly being used. They are found mostly in mixtures laid on roads with high traffic loadings, in special conditions (e. g., road crossings, slow traffic lanes) or on special pavements, although one should remember that PMBs require a suitable technological regime. U. S. experts recom­mend that highly modified PMBs with polymer contents over 5% (m/m) should not be used (Asphalt Review, December 2004). High polymer contents create problems with fast stiffening and increased difficulties during compaction. Use of highly- modified PMBs combined with other stiffness enhancers should be especially avoided.

Properly chosen and tested modified binders could increase rutting resistance and decrease the risk of low-temperature cracking of an SMA pavement.

Among the special binders, multigrade ones are sometimes used in SMA mix­tures; for example, in Australia (NAS AAPA, 2004) they are used for heavily traf­ficked pavements.

The Relationship Between Allergies and Chemical Exposure

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Inthe 1950s it was estimated that about Mpercent of the population suffered from allergies. Accord­ing to some estimates, this proportion at present is estimated at between 40 and 75 percent. Why the dramatic increase? Allergists in Japan pondered the same question. A hypothesis was put forth that certain chemicals act as sensitizing agents. To test the hypothesis, two groups of mice were exposed to high levels of the Japanese equivalent of juniper pollen, and then tested for an allergic re­sponse. In both the study and the control groups about 5 percent of the mice developed allergies to the pollen. The study group was then exposed to benzene fumes from car exhaust. Upon retest­ing, there was a significant increase in the study group’s allergic response to the pollen, while the control group remained at 5 percent.3

Discussion

Although there is clearly a link between chemical exposures and allergies, the exact mechanism has not yet been elucidated. Most people who have acquired multiple chemical sensitivities also suffer from traditional allergies to pollens, dust, dander, and mold. Benzene is only one of many pollut­ants known to damage the immune system. Since these chemicals are found in thousands of mod­ern products for home and industrial use, millions of people are constantly exposed to low levels at home and at work.

a. M. Muranaka et al. "Adjutant Activity of Diesel Exhaust Particulates for the Production of IgE anti­body in m ice." Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immu­nology. Vol. 77 (April 1996), pp. 616-623.

include surrounding landscaping can in­corporate vegetation to help shade, allow in sun, block harsh winds, or funnel help­ful breezes. Edible vegetation can also dou­ble as an organic food source.

Design for Combustion Source Management and Safety

The introduction of harmful combustion by­products into the home poses a serious health threat that can be entirely avoided through proper design and equipment specification. The measures we describe are neither code­required nor commonly found in standard construction.

• The mechanical room and mechanical equipment should be designed so that no

exchange of air takes place between them and the living space.

• All gas appliances should be properly vented to the outside.

• The garage should be separated from the living space so that air exchange does not occur between the two.

• Any home with gas or other combustion appliances should be equipped with car­bon monoxide monitors.

• A source of fresh air intake should be pro­vided to make up for air consumed in com­bustion and air exhaust processes.

Design for Water Management Many health problems begin when build­ings become moldy. Throughout this book we

Подпись: Adobe interior walls and stone flooring store heat in the winter and remain cool in the summer while the straw bale walls of this home (not shown) provide a high degree of insulation.These natural materials provide an energy efficient solution for the cold winters and hot summers of Northern New Mexico. Architect: Baker-Laporte and Associates; Builder: Living Structures; Photo: Eric Swanson.

suggest strategies for the proper control of water and water vapor. Moisture control be­gins with good design that includes:

• sufficient roof overhangs and protection over door and window openings that will help keep rain and melting snow away from the building and its penetrations

• a well-designed and detailed perimeter drainage system that will keep basements, crawl spaces, and floor slabs dry

• sufficient means for evacuating moisture generated from within the building by hu­man activity

• placement of floor drains and detailing
so that a water discharge resulting from equipment failure (and equipment often eventually fails!) will not have costly and health threatening consequences

Design for Durability and Serviceability

• A large part of home design involves is­sues of cost and quality. If the owner is informed about lifecycle costs and not just the initial costs of materials and sys­tems, he or she will be much more likely to make choices favoring durable and eas­ily maintained materials. For example, a tar-and-gravel roof is less expensive than

a single-ply membrane roof, but the first roof may come with only a two-year war­ranty while the second one may have a ten – year warranty. The first roof will outgas for several weeks each time it is replaced and the home will become filled with carcino­genic tar fumes. The second roof may be a “torched down” application that causes little pollution when patched or replaced. If the owner plans to stay in the home for more than five years, the second roof, al­though more expensive initially, will in the long run be a healthier and more cost- effective choice.

• Every homeowner has specific needs that will affect the indoor environmental qual­ity and should be fully considered in the
design phase. For example, there may be a need for extra ventilation in hobby areas or a locked closet to keep inappropriate ma­terials away from small children.

• Family sizes grow and shrink. As people age, they require greater ease of accessi­bility. Small children require constant sur­veillance. As children grow they require more autonomy. More and more people are choosing to work at home. A flexible design can more easily accommodate these lifestyle changes and allow a family to stay in the home as changes occur. A desire for stability can promote initial choices based on quality and longevity. Anyone who has ever moved can relate to the extreme stress caused by the process of relocation.

A Good Home

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A small house is not merely as good as its larger correlate; it is better. A home that is designed to meet its occupants’ domestic needs for contented living without exceeding those needs will invariably surpass the quality of a bigger one in terms of sustainability, economics and aesthetics.

Sustainability

Under no circumstances does a 3,000-square foot house for two qualify as "green.” All the solar gain and reclaimed materials in the world can never change that. At 2,349 square feet, the average American house now emits more carbon dioxide than the average American car.2

Our houses are the biggest in the world—four times the international aver­age. Since 1950, the median size of a new American house has more than doubled, even though the number of people per household shrank by more than 25 percent.3 Not so long ago, you could expect to find just one bathroom in a house; but, by 1972, half of all new homes contained two or more bath­rooms. Ten years later, three-quarters did. More bathrooms, more bedrooms and dens, bigger rooms overall, and, perhaps most notably, more stuff, have come to mean more square footage. America’s houses have, quite literally, become bloated warehouses full of toys, furniture and decorations, and a lot of things we may never see or use.

As prodigal as this may seem already, even a space capable of meeting our extravagant living and storage needs is not always enough. We still have to worry about impressing a perceived audience. Entire rooms must be added to accommodate anticipated parties that may never be given and guests

Подпись: The “American Dream”

who may never arrive. It is not uncommon for a living room to go unused for months between social gatherings and, even then, quickly empty out as guests gravitate toward the informality of the kitchen.

Until recently, the issue of over-consumption was conspicuously absent from mainstream green discourse. You are unlikely to find the answer to sprawl of­fered in a sustainable materials catalogue. Accountable consumption stands to serve no particular business interest. Building financiers and the real es­tate industry are certainly pleased with the current situation. Bigger is better, from their perspective, and they are always eager to tell us so.

If you do only one thing to make your new home more environmentally sound, make it small. Unless supporting the housing industry is the kind of sustain­ability you hope to achieve, a reasonably-scaled home is the best way there is to make a positive difference with real estate.

Some Holes Are So Big That Nobody Notices Them

Posted by on 12/ 11/ 15

It’s not only insulation and HVAC con­tractors who are inadvertently sabotaging our houses. Framers often construct large holes that extend from the basement to the attic in the form of chimney, plumbing, and duct chases. These chases are hidden behind drywall or are covered by fiberglass-batt in­sulation. But insulation alone won’t prevent conditioned interior air from escaping. Big holes should be sealed with plywood, rigid foam, or drywall and caulk or spray foam.

Kneewalls and rim joists are two more often-missed ex-

j

amples. Think of them as long holes in a house. Kneewalls are the short walls found in finished attics and in bonus rooms above the garage. Insula­tion is usually put in the kneewall and under the floorboards, but this insulation doesn’t keep a room warm unless you block each
joist cavity or, better yet, insulate under the roof deck (see p. 16).

Rim joists also have multiple holes cut in them for dryer vents and outdoor water faucets. Rim joists are best sealed when the house is built. The top and bottom edges should be sealed with construction adhesive during framing and insulated with spray foam afterward.

Architectural Massing Can Often Mean Massive Leaking

Architects use features such as cantilevers and wraparound porches to break up the massing of a mundane facade. I have noth­ing against great-looking houses, but these architecturally interesting details can create giant energy nosebleeds.

Подпись:Insulation and air-barrier details are often missed in cantilevered areas. The underside of a cantilever should be covered with solid sheathing (caulked in place) before finish materials are installed. Roof and wall sheath­ing is frequently left off below intersecting porch and garage roofs. The spaces below these roofs often connect to vented attics; they are just big air vents to the outdoors. Fancy details like tray ceilings and curved walls also can create big holes that open to attics.

Great-looking houses should also perform well. Architects should draw a line between inside and out on the blueprints, and make sure the house is built that way.

Industrial Waste

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Approximately 150 million tons (136 X 109 kg) of industrial waste of the type that can be potentially reused to some degree in highway projects is produced annually in the United States. Little of this waste can be landfilled. Many kinds of industrial wastes are not suitable for highway use because they are hazardous or because leachate from these mate­rials are a threat to the environment. Through treatment, some industrial wastes otherwise deemed a threat to the environment may be rendered usable. Petroleum-contaminated soils, for instance, once thermally treated, can be used as fill material and have been used in asphalt mixtures as fine aggregates. Petroleum-contaminated soils are not currently being recycled into highway projects but have been used on road and street construction at the local level. The principal recoverable wastes from industrial activities are described below.

Coal Ash By-Products. NCHRP Synthesis 199 cites an American Coal Ash Association publication, (Coal Combustion By-Product Production and Consumption. 1992) when noting that 66 million tons (60 X 109 kg) of coal ash is produced annually from the 420 coal-burning power plants across the country. Coal is either anthracite, bitu­minous, or lignite (subbituminous); the particular form has a bearing on the characteris­tics of the by-products.

Fly Ash. ASTM divides fly ash into two classes: class F, from anthracite coal; and class C, from lignite coal. Class F fly ash reacts with calcium and water at ordinary tem­peratures to form a cementlike compound. Class C fly ash has a higher lime content than class F fly ash and can be self-setting. To be usable as a cementitious substitute for Portland cement, fly ash must meet quality standards established by ASTM (Standard C-618). Approximately 25 percent of the fly ash produced meets this standard, yet only about half of the viable resource is being used.

Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag. Bottom ash and boiler slag are also by-products of coal burning, amounting to approximately 18 million tons (16 X 109 kg) of waste produced annually. These by-products are being researched for use in embankments, unbound aggre­gate, and asphalt paving and antiskid material.

Blast-Furnace Slag. Slag that is the by-product of producing iron in a blast furnace is nonferrous and consists of silicates and aluminosilicates of lime. Of the three types of slag produced from blast furnaces (expanded, granular, and air cooled), about 90 percent of that recovered for use in construction is air cooled. Air-cooled slag is porous and suitable for use as aggregate in lightweight concrete, in asphalt, in roadway bases, and in fill material. Granulated slag can be finely ground as slag cement, and expanded slag can be used as aggregate in lightweight concrete. The primary barrier to use of slag is that it was not sep­arated into homogeneous piles and it was mixed with steel slag.

Steel Slag. Steel slag is the product of lime flux reacting with products in a steel furnace such as pig iron. Steel slag consists of calcium, iron, unslaked lime, and magnesium. It can be very expansive if not properly “aged” through treatment with water. Because of its characteristics of being very hard, stable, and abrasion-resistant, it is used in paving mate­rial and snow control. It is heavier than most aggregate and has been used as fill material and as railroad ballast. However, some concern has developed recently that the leachate from these two uses clogs drains and can affect receiving waters. About 7.9 million tons (7.2 X 109 kg) of steel slag is sold in the United States annually.

Nonferrous Slag. Slag from smelting operations for other ores such as copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and phosphates is grouped together under a single heading. Each must be evaluated and treated separately because of the varying properties these slags possess. Phosphate slag, copper oxide blasting slag, and zinc slag have been used as aggregate in paving mix­tures. Aluminum slag has been used experimentally for asphalt paving aggregate, but the material proved not to be durable and is no longer used.

Foundry Wastes. It is estimated that 3 million tons (2.7 X 109 kg) of foundry wastes are produced annually in the United States, including furnace dust, arc furnace dust, and sand residue. Foundries are concentrated primarily in the Great Lakes states. Foundry dust is often disposed of as hazardous material because of its high concentration of metals. Foundry sand, however, is not generally hazardous and has been used as fill material, pipe bedding, and fine aggregate in paving mixtures. Tests must be conducted on the material prior to reuse to determine the properties of the leachate and to ensure that it is environmentally safe. Research into the use of foundry sand is being conducted by departments of transportation in five states, and its use has met with limited success. The permanence of foundry sand as pipe bedding in Illinois, however, was not consid­ered acceptable.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge. Flue gas desulfurization sludge (FGD) is the product of wet scrubbing of flue gases at coal-burning plants and consists of calcium sulfate or sulfite slurry. These slurries are generally landfilled. By dewatering FGD (especially the sulfate slurries) and blending it with a reactant such as portland cement, or cement fly ash, the mixture can be used as stabilized base material or as fill material. FGD has also been used as a dust control palliative, and additional uses are being investigated.

Paper Mill Wastes. Inorganic paper mill sludge has been used occasionally for dust con­trol on highway projects. Although research has indicated that spent sulfide liquor from the paper milling process may have application in soil stabilization, it is believed that a higher level of use exists for the material within the paper industry. The ash residue from burning bark at paper mills, when pulverized with coal and burned, has been shown to be as effec­tive a portland cement substitute as class F fly ash and is being considered for use in high­way projects.

Something in My Home is Making Me Sick: General Testing Protocols

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The process of performing a building inspection to address a client’s concerns is much more than taking instrument readings and reporting on the findings. A good building inspectorshould be part building scientist, part investigative journalist, part psychologist, and part building contractor. A nickname for the home inspector is"house doc­tor," which makes sense since the process of diag­nosing and curing a sick home has many parallels to diagnosing and curing an ailing person.

The homeowner perceives a need and con­tacts the inspector to help address it. The building inspector’s job is to understand how a building is affecting the client or how environmental condi­tions are affecting the building. It is critical to ask the right questions. There is a pollutant affecting the client or the building; this pollutant has a res­ervoir within the building or an adjacent area of in­fluence; and there is a pathway and a driving force
allowing the pollutant to come in contact with the person or building. This is true for everything from electromagnetic fields to moisture and mold to pesticides, a whole range of building pollutants that can be investigated and measured if one has the necessary tools and skills to make this invisible world visible.

Typically your first contact with the inspec­tor will be a phone interview during which you explain in detail the history of your home, any changes you have made to it, and any changes you have observed in its feel, smell, and appear­ance overtime. A seasoned inspector, like a doctor, will beabletotakea good case history, askyou the right questions, and offer insights based on your experience and your concerns. This interview is critical to laying thefoundation for the inspection. Has remodeling, a recent pesticide application, or the installation of a new wireless phone or internet

Design for Responsiveness to the Natural Climate

In all but the most hostile environments, a home that is designed to be responsive to its surroundings will provide a wide range of op­portunities for its residents to reap the health benefits of nature while reducing dependency on energy-consuming mechanical space con­ditioning.

• Good window design can greatly reduce dependence on mechanical heating and cooling. Placing windows to prevent over­heating and to facilitate cross ventilation and solar gain when needed can result in both energy savings and a higher level of comfort. Proper window placement, the right type of window design, and glass

coating, used in conjunction with over­hangs and trellises, can contribute to a suc­cessful home design.

• Proper room layout and window place­ment can also provide good natural light­ing and a sense of well-being while reduc­ing dependence on electrical lighting.

• Screened porches, overhangs, trellises, and patios can provide opportunities for extended outdoor living while acting as climatic buffer zones around the home.

• A paved entry path, covered entry porch, and foyer will reduce the amount of tracked-in dirt and provide a convenient place for shoe removal or cleaning, result­ing in a cleaner home.

• An extension of the design process to

service occurred? All these conditions and more can affect sensitive individuals.

Even the most obscure building symptoms can be reduced by improving the environment.

An inspector is trained to treat buildings, not diagnose people, but improvements in the envi­ronment often lead to the improved well-being of a building’s occupants. Many autoimmune – type diseases find their beginnings in a sensitizing event. The focus of the inspector’s investigation will be attempting to discover the onset of this event and, based on the inspection and test re­sults, recommending a means to minimize your exposure to whatever has made you ill and/or is making your building deteriorate.

Nature is the measuring stickfor a Building Bi­ologist’s inspection. The baseline for elevated lev­els will be the natural surroundings. The interior of your home should have lower levels of dust, par­ticulate matter, and mold than the surrounding outdoors. Your electromagnetic fields, especially in your sleeping area, should be minimal. During the course of the investigation the inspector may uncover other conditions of which you had no pre­vious awareness but that can affect your health.

In my work as an inspector, my intention is to understand what is happening in the home or of­fice and be able to present this information to my client in a supportive way. In other words, I culti­vate a good "bedside manner."This is a critical as­pect of the client/inspector relationship. The last thing I want is for the information I present to over­whelm my client or leave them feeling that condi­tions are outside their control. Remember, there is a natural or least toxic alternative to all our build­ing challenges. Little changes built up over time can lead to big improvements. You can start by simply removing all the plug-in airfresheners and

Something in My Home is Making Me Sick: General Testing Protocols

This entryway is designed for "tracking off" dirt and for shoe removal. It features a covered paved entry way and a sunken vestibule with easily mopped stone floors, that effectively keeps outside mud and dirt from finding its way into the home.

Photo: Paula Baker-Laporte.

installing pleated filters on the air conditioning system or letting more fresh air into your home.

After the client interview and building history, it is time to begin the physical investigation. The inspector will have formed a hypothesis of what is occurring within the building and will attempt to prove or disprove this hypothesis by taking the appropriate measurements with the appropriate instruments and testing devices. A typical base­line investigation targets a building’s systems and measures the operational conditions for a num­ber of parameters, depending on the focus Just as the doctor will take your vital signs during a gen­eral checkup, the building inspector will begin the general investigation with measurements for temperature, humidity, moisture content, mold, airborne particulates, air exchange, chemical com­ponents, and electromagnetic fields, the build­ing’s "vital signs" Further testing can be expensive
and is indicated only when the building inspector has cause for concern based on the results of the case history and initial inspection.

A Building Biology inspector will use Build­ing Biology standards, which are based closely on a natural and healthy environment. Deviations from these standards indicate a departure from a healthy environment. The farther we progress away from a natural baseline, the unhealthier a building becomes. Building health is a measurable phenomenon when your inspector has the skills and tools.

Making positive changes to unhealthy build­ing conditions will result in an improvement and a move toward the goal of a healthy building. Re­ductions in moisture intrusion will result in a drier building and prevent damage to building materi­als and also possible mold growth. Improvements in the temperature and humidity performance

Something in My Home is Making Me Sick: General Testing Protocols

Deep roof overhangs and a covered entry help protect the natural wall elements of this straw – clay timber frame home. Architect: Paula Baker-Laporte; Builder: Econest Building Co.

Photo: Paula Baker-Laporte.

and filtration of an air conditioning system can be the difference needed to prevent a proliferation of dust mites (a prime allergen for asthmatics). Elim­inating chemical pesticides and using common – sense natural pest control in their place will reduce exposure to neurotoxins that challenge immune systems. In short, Building Biologists are looking for ways to make buildings as healthy as possible. Build tight, ventilate right, and make conscious decisions about the materials you bring into your home. This is the house doctor’s equivalent of "eat right and get plenty of exercise and good rest" Maintaining a healthy home, like maintaining a healthy body, requires preventive "medicine." It is the homeowner’s job to become knowledgeable about and perform the necessary maintenance for the systems that keep the home healthy. This in­cludes regular mechanical system maintenance, regular home cleaning with a good HEPA vacuum,
periodic changing ofwaterandairfilters, and min­imizing exposure to electromagnetic fields and chemicals through prudent avoidance.

Will Spates has been practicing Building Biol­ogy for over 15 years and has been involved in the design, construction, and maintenance of en­vironmental systems for over 30 years. He is the founder and president of Indoor Environmental Technologies, a testing and consulting firm that has performed over 4,000 inspections. He can be reached at wspates@IETbuildinghealth. com and at IETbuildinghealth. com.

Construction Waste

Posted by on 12/ 11/ 15

Much construction demolition debris consists of wastes with little recycling value for high­ways, such as wood and plaster. However, demolition debris also includes concrete, glass, metal, brick, and asphalt, most of which can be reused in highways as aggregate. In order to be a viable resource and meet the standard specifications as aggregate when crushed, the construction and/or demolition rubble must be separated from the other debris and cleaned of detritus. Construction wastes generated and the associated annual tonnage produced are presented below. Tonnage estimates were collected from numerous sources and summa­rized in NCHRP Synthesis 199.

Reclaimed Asphalt. Asphalt pavement from the demolition of parking lots, roads, and highways can be reclaimed. Most states are making at least some use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in highways, with use within asphalt pavement as the most prevalent use. Estimated tonnage of available RAP is 50 million tons annually. Because the use of RAP interferes with the ability to control hot-mix temperatures during formulation, asphalt mix­tures can contain only between 20 and 50 percent RAP. Achieving 50 percent RAP content is practical only in a laboratory setting, where thorough blending of the RAP and new aggregate can be controlled. When plant efficiency is a concern, 50 percent RAP in hot mix is not practical. The differential between the temperature of the discharged gases and the discharged asphalt mix reaches 70° F (21°C). High exhaust gas temperatures can lead to premature corrosion of plan equipment. Thus the percentage of RAP that can be incorporated efficiently is based on the plant efficiency that can be maintained. (U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook, AC 150/5370-14, July 1991, Appendix 1, pp. 1-21, and 2-45.)

Reclaimed Concrete Pavement (RCP). The recycling of concrete pavement began in this country many years ago, first as unbound aggregate, then in asphalt-wearing surfaces, and later as concrete aggregate. Improved methods of breaking up concrete and separating out the rebar have made the use of RCP more cost-competitive. Many states now recycle con­crete pavements either as new concrete or as aggregate in subbase material or base course. This does not include demolition debris of concrete structures.

Roofing Shingles. Scrap and leftover materials from composite shingle manufacturing operations results in a large quantity of waste annually. The waste includes fragments, asphalt binder, and granules. These wastes can be recycled as asphalt paving material. Shingle waste from roofing contractors and demolition operations is less viable because of possible contamination.

Sandblasting Residue. Many uses of sandblasting grit are possible if the removed paint was not lead based. If the paint was lead based or contained other metals, the debris would have to be analyzed to determine if it was nonhazardous before suitable use.

Demolition Debris. Demolition debris is a major component of waste. Much of this debris can not be received in municipal landfills. To be viable for recycling, the debris has to be separated into homogeneous materials. Rubble material has many recycling uses in highways. Wood debris can be chipped and used for lightweight fill and mulch, but only if it is untreated. Disposing of asbestos-containing material (ACM, prevalent in buildings constructed before 1979) is difficult because chrysotile asbestos fibers are known to increase cancer risk if inhaled. If demolition of buildings with ACM from state trans­portation right-of-way is required in a project, it is possible in some states to arrange for on-site disposal in a state-monitored landfill.

First of the maritime civilizations

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We complete this overview of the very first hydraulic works with a brief look at early navigation, which has prehistorical origins. The migrations that accompanied the Neolithic spread toward the western Mediterranean are thought to have been by sea. The island of Cyprus, already populated in the IXth millennium BC from Palestine or from southeast Europe, experienced the neolithic migration about 7500 BC, including the arrival of cattle from the continent. Crete was populated about 6000 BC from Anatolia.

The Sicilian Neolithic was populated through seaborne migration from the Near East, thought to have passed through Greece on the way.[28]

A fundamental invention for the development of long-distance maritime commerce appeared in the IVth millennium BC: the sailboat. The oldest evidence is a boat model found in a tomb at Eridu, one of the oldest Sumerian cities, located to the south of Ur near the Persian Gulf (Figure 1.6). This model, dating from the first half of the IVth mil­lennium BC,[29] includes what is in effect a mast socket and attach holes for the stays. In addition, two other sailboat models that date from the IIIrd millennium and are similar to the one found at Eridu, have been recovered at the mouth of the Indus.

First of the maritime civilizations
First of the maritime civilizations

Important maritime routes (Figure 1.3) provided very early links among the Euphrates, the region of Bahrain (Dilmun of the Sumerians), the Oman peninsula[30] [31] (Magan) and the Indus (likely the region called Meluhha). The Indus civilization found­ed a kind of trading base facing the Persian Gulf, at Suktagen Dor, as well as a port to the east, at Lothal. On this site there is a large rectangular basin made of clay bricks, and whose purpose is still subject to debate: freshwater reservoir, or basin of a port?

From the IIIrd millennium BC, Egypt also developed maritime routes, through the Red Sea to the legendary land of Punt (to the east of Sudan), and between the Nile and

the Phoenician ports of Byblos, and Sidon. The first evidence of a sailboat in Egypt, found on a vase (Figure 1.6), dates from about 3100 BC;[32] large seagoing sailing vessels appear in Egyptian engravings from 2400 BC.[33]

The first European civilization may be that of the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea, in the Bronze Age during which commerce in metals plays an important economic role. Images of boats with tapered ends have been found on the island of Syros, engraved on objects of unknown usage, called “frying pans” by archaeologists, dating from about 2400 BC (Figure 1.8). These boats have many oars but appear to have neither mast nor sail; they are curiously similar to the boats with oars painted on Egyptian vases at the end of the IVth millennium BC. At the beginning of the IInd millennium BC, the Cretan navy operated shuttles connecting sites of the Aegean Sea, Syria (the port of Ugarit), Cyprus, Byblos, and Egypt. Cretan engravings and seals generally show boats with many oars, and a single mast carrying a sail. Starting in 1400 BC, the Greek navy, along with its Phoenician counterpart, protected and enabled long-distance commerce in the Mediterranean.

First of the maritime civilizations

Figure 1.8. Image of a tapered boat with numerous oars, after one of the objects called “frying pans” found at Syros, in the Cylades (about 2400 BC). Note the similarity with the boat of Figure 1.7, in particular the bow figurehead, here in the form of a fish (Sketch after Casson, 1971).

Construction of hydraulic works thus was clearly driven by the need for irrigation and flood protection. But it was also driven by the need to maintain fluvial communi­cation links, and to develop new maritime connections between the basins of the various major rivers. We will see several examples of this in later chapters, including on the Nile itself, between the Nile and the Red Sea, along the middle course of the Euphrates, between the Tigris and the Euphrates, and between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River – the famous Grand Canal.