[1] Sanlaville (1996).
[2] For a recent synthesis of the birth of agriculture and the Neolithic revolution, see the book of the prehistorian and archaeologist Jacques Cauvin, Naissance des divinites, naissance de l’agriculture, la revolution des symbols au Neolithique, revised in 1996.
[3] Some have proposed that population pressure explains the exodus which clearly accompanied the Neolithic spread (each generation seems to have migrated 20 kilometers or so). But according to Jacques Cauvin, this explanation is inadequate; he sees in addition a profound change of mentality, responding to the call of the “new frontier”.
[4] According to Geyer and Besanfon (1997), the Euphrates was in a sedimentation phase until the VIIth millennium BC, having a braided morphology which favored early seasonal, non-irrigated agriculture. From the VIth millennium BC, the river entered a new phase of erosion of its bed into its own alluvia. The terraces that were formed as a consequence, protected from flooding a dozen or so meters above the riverbed, became favorable to permanent settlements. Irrigation then became necessary.
[5] Cauvin (1969), p. 239. Evidence of such drainage may also have been observed at Bouqras.
[6] See for example Huot (1994), describing the explorations performed by the American archaeologist John Oates in 1967-68.
[7] See reference books like Roux (Ancient Iraq, Allen & Unwin, 1964); Oates (Babylon, Thames & Hudson, 1986).
[8] This is from a tablet that also carries the very first account of the Flood. The tablet is from the Nipur collection at the University Museum of Philadelphia; the translation was published in 1914 by A. Poebel (Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, Chapter 23).
[9] Balancing device making it possible to use manpower to lift water for irrigation of fields; see Figure 2.4 in the following chapter.
[10] This account, called Royal Chronicle of Lagash, is thought to be somewhat satirical. It probably dates from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Livius, Articles on Ancient History, http://www. livius. org/cg-cm/chronicles/cm/lagash. html.
[11] Extract of a poem entitled “The Feats and Exploits of Ninurta” (Kramer, 1961, Chapt. 3).
[12] Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, Chapt. 23.
[13] The Epic of Gilgamesh, Translation of Timothy R.(Wolf) Carnahan http ://www. ancienttexts. org/index. html.
[14] Contenau (1927), Volume 3, p. 1507; Roux (1964), Chapter 7.
[15] A 1977 investigation in the northeast of Afghanistan uncovered ceramic remnants of the Indus civilization: see Lyonnet (1981).
[16] This view reflects discoveries by Russian archaeologists in recent decades. See Kohl (1984), Masson (1992), Sarianidi (1992).
[17] Quote from the historian Sima Qian, who lived about 100 BC, Sima Qian, Shi Ji 29, transl Burton Watson.
[18] The China scholar Marcel Granet has collected the legends and traditions of the ancient Chinese writings. For the legend of Yu the Great, see “Danses et legends de la Chine ancienne”, first published in 1926 (pages 244 and 468 in the re-publication of 1994).
[19] Papyrus of Ani; Egyptian Book of the Dead Translated by E. A. Wallis Budge http://www. sas. upenn. edu/African_Studies/Books/Papyrus_Ani. html.
[20] Lalouette (1984), II, Chapt. 3, adapted.
[21] Text engraved in a tomb at Amarna, after Lalouette (1984), II, Chapt. 4, adapted.
[22] After Jean-Marie Durand (1998), Documents epistolaires du palais de Mari, II, 806.
[23] Durand (1998), II, 81.
[24] Stordeur (1989); Cauvin (1997), Chapt. 16, p. 239; we have adopted the dating indicated by Cauvin, recently recalibrated.
[25] After Michaael Janssen (1988).
[26] Margueron (1991), Volume II, p. 29.
[27] Vallet (1997).
[28] Rachet (1993).
[29] De Graeve (1981), Chapt. 4, F; Roaf (1990).
[30] Eridu, State Org. of Antiques and Herritage, Baghdad, 1982.
[31] The Bahrain and Oman archaeological sites of the 3d millennium BC have been partially explored (Cleziou, 1987). It has been established that the copper used in lower Mesopotamia in this period came from the mines of the mountains of Oman. At the eastern extremity of the peninsula have been found remnants of tar used to waterproof seagoing vessels, as well as objects characteristic of the Indus civilization. The tasty dates of Dilmun are celebrated in Sumerian texts. Dilmun had numerous artesian wells and luxuriant palm groves.
[32] Casson (1971).
[33] The funeral chapel (mastaba) of the tomb of Akhethetep, on display at the Louvre museum, dates from 2400 BC and contains engravings of large sailing vessels with two masts, allowing a distribution of the wind force on the hull.
[34] Tablet of the Lagash Dynasty (2570 – 2340 BC), somewhat deteriorated. From Sollberger and Kupper (1971), p. 44.
[35] Kramer (1986), Chap 6. To commemorate his victory over Umma, Eannatum had the famous “stela (stone monument) of the Vultures” engraved; it can be seen in the Louvre museum.
[36] Prologue adapted from Finet (1996). Laws 53 and 56 from the Translation of L. W. King (1910) Edited by Richard Hooker http://www. wsu. edu:8080/~dee/MESO/CODE. HTM . The proclamation of year 33 of the reign is from Renger (1990), from Driver and Miles, Babylonian Laws
[37] See Steinkeller (1988) for a description of the nag-kuds according to Sumerian texts, also Van Soldt (1988) for the equivalent natbaku from a later date. The concept seemed to last more than a thousand years.
[38] after a Sumerian text called “The Farmer’s Almanac” (Kramer, 1986, Chapter 11).
[39] Herodotus, The History, Translation of David Grene, book I, 193.
[40] after Bonneau (1993), p. 94.
[41] Xenophon, Anabasis, Book II, Chapter IV, 13, Translation of C. Brownson.
[42] Strabon, Geography, (Translation of F. Lasserre), Les Belles Lettres, 1981, 16, 9-10, adapted.
On the other hand it seems now to have been established that contrary to certain legends, there is not a true dam constructed on the Tigris before the period of the Persian Empire.
[43] See Schnitter (1994).
[44] law No. 70, from the edition of Andre Finet (1996).
[45] Xenophon, Anabasis, Book I, Chapter VII, 14, Translation of C. Brownson.
[46] Strabon, Geography, 16, 10 (Translation of F. Lasserre), Les Belles Lettres, 1981, adapted.
[47] From Sollberger and Kupper (1971), “Royal Sumerian and Akkadian Inscriptions”. For the works of the kings of Larsa, see Renger (1990) and Charpin (2002).
[48] Herodotus, The History, book I, 184-186, Translation of David Grene.
[49] Ibid., book I, 191.
18 Inscription on a clay cylinder called “the cylinder of Babylon”; Translation of Lecoq (1997), Chapter
[51]
[52] Helms (1987 a-b).
[53] Helms (1987 b).
[54] Helms (1987b).
[55] Ibid.
[56] Margueron (2004).
[57] Margueron (2003).
[58] J.-M. Durant, Documents epistolaires du palais de Mari I, (1997), doc. 157-159, adapted.
[59] Inscription on the head of a clay spike, found in the Mari palace, adapted from Sollberger and Kupper (1971).
[60] Margueron (1988), Geyer (1990), Monchabert (1990), Margueron (1991), Calvet and Geyer (1992).
[61] Calvet and Geyer (1992), Chapter 9. This dam, built with limestone blocks cemented with a chalk – based mortar, could be a Hellenistic or Roman reconstruction, given the proximity of Doura Europos, of a structure from Mari or even from an earlier time, for there is a very ancient inhabited site here.
[62] Akkadian texts engraved in cuneiform writing on tablets of baked clay; this evidence dates from the reign of Zimri-Lim, one of the Amorite successors of Yahdun-Lim, who reigned 14 years and was the last king of Mari.
[63] Durand (1998), II, 793. This document suggests that the canal Isim-Yahdun Lim extends to Terqa, a hypothesis that we have adopted in Figure 2.11.
[64] Ibid., II, 784.
32 Durand (1998), II, 796.
33 Ibid., II, 804.
34 Ibid., II, 805.
[66] cit. after Lafont (1991); see also Durand (1998), II, 813. If indeed it is of the Mari canal that one speaks here, it must have extended to Der. The wadi Der is called Balih, from the name of one of the major tributaries of the Euphrates, which seems to be a common practice in usage.
[67] Geyer (1990).
[68] Jean-Claude Margueron is a strong proponent of the hypothesis of an ancient navigation canal (see his various publications). Prior to the era of Zimri Lim, from which the texts cited herein are drawn, a message sent by a king of upper Mesopotamia, whose domains include Mari and its region, is of interest. The message asks that precious wood coming from Qatna in Syria, coming down the Euphhrates to Suprum, “be brought upstream by boat to Saggaratum, from there (again by boat) to Qattunan (further up the Khabur). From there, the wood can be transported on carts…” (Durand, letter No. 187). J. C. Margueron brought this letter to my attention. The importance that it gives to Suprum as a transfer port, and to Saggaratum as a stopover, is quite consistent with the notion of a grand navigation canal.
[69] Calvet and Geyer (1992), chapt. 2.
[70] This name does not have great significance; the Greeks tended to attribute numerous ancient works to the legendary Semiramis.
[71] “Etapes de Parthie”, cited from Calvet and Geyer.
[72] Callot (1983).
[73] Contenau (1927), Volume 3, p. 1373.
[74] Ghirshman, 1968.
[75] Inscription of Sennacherib, cited from Jacobsen and Lloyd (1935).
[76] See Jacobsen and Lloyd (1935) for a report of field studies on the dam and the inscriptions of Bavian and the aqueduct of Jerman; and Schnitter (1994) for details of the weir of Ajileh.
[77] A stela mentions Rusa without further note. According to Paul Zimansky (1985), the king Rusa II (680 – 654 BC) deserves credit for this project.
[78] Regarding supply of water from the Tushpa and Rusahinili, see Garbrecht (1980, 1988).
[79] This title could be contested by the Homs dam in Syria that is attributed by some to the Egyptians, but that probably dates from the Roman occupation. We come back to this in Chapter 7.
[80] This process is known to us through the quite complete study of Henri Goblot (1979).
Modern studies tend to disagree with his belief that the qanats originated in Urartu.
[81] Account of the eighth campaign of Sargon II against Rusa I, tablet conserved in the Louvre museum, citation after Goblot (1979).
[82] Ctesias, History of the Persians, 13, adapted from the Translation of J. Auberger. Later, Polybius mentions even more clearly the “underground canals” of this region (extract cited in Chapter 7).
[83] Strabon, Geography, (Translation of F. Lasserre), Les Belles Lettres, 1981, adapted.
[84] Bader, Gaibov, Gubaev, and Koshelenko (1996);Gaibov and Kochelenko (2002): according to these authors, irrigation of the Merv oasis began as early as 2100 BC.
[85] This exploration was led by Jean-Claude Gardin, with the participation of P. Gentelle and B. Lyonnet. For the layout of the canals, see Gentelle (1989); for a synthesis of the hydraulic works, with dating of the canals revised from analysis of ceramics, see Gardin (1998).
[86] We nevertheless discuss in this chapter certain projects of the Ptolemites, the successors of Alexander and sovereigns of Greek culture, when these projects are continuations of work of the Pharaonic era.
[87] This account, called the “stela of famine”, relates the difficult years that were said to have occurred under the reign of Djoser, 2nd Pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty (about 2600 BC). The stela was engraved after the fact, under the Ptolemites, but it is likely the retranscription of a much older text or tradition. Translation by Lichtheim, http://www. touregypt. net/faminestele. htm.
[88] Geography, book XVII, 1,3, Translation of Pascal Charvet.
[89] See Daniele Bonneau (1986), Gunther Garbrecht (1987), and the commentaries of Jean Yoyotte and Pascal Charvet (1997) in “The Voyage to Egypt” of Strabo.
[90] slabs of black stone, a fragment of which can be seen in the Cairo museum; the main slab, the “Palermo Stone”, is in that city’s museum (see for example Roccati, 1982).
[91] Geography, book XVII, 1, 48, Translation of Pascal Charvet.
[92] Macehead said to be of Khashkemoui, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
[93] Ibid., Book 2, 99.
[94] According to Nicolas Grimal (1992).
[95] Kerisel (1999).
[96] the Arabs have given this name to the remains of the works; it means “dam of the nonbelievers”
[97] Gunther Garbrecht (1985) gives a detailed account of the conclusions of this exploration.
[98] Funeral inscription of prince Ouni (2400 – 2350 BC), from Claire Lalouette (1984), I.
[99] Grimal (1988), Chapter 6.
[100] Goyon (1986).
[101] Herodotus, The History, book II, 29, Translation of David Grene.
[102] citation from Jean Vercoutter (1991).
[103] Mirgissa was explored between 1962 and 1968 by a French expedition directed by Jean Vercoutter. For an overview, see Vercoutter (1991). For navigation between Aswan and Semna, see Goyon (1986).
[104] Geography, book XVII, 1, 35, Translations of Pascal Charvet, adapted.
[105] 10 cm per century, according to Butzer (1998). The normal level of the Nile at the latitude of Fayoum, today at an elevation of +24 m, was probably about +20 m at the beginning of the IInd millennium BC.
[106] These data are from the geological studies synthesized and analyzed by Butzer (1997). The elevation of -2 m reached around 2000 BC is derived from the geological work of Gardener and Caton – Thomson (1929), cited by Garbrecht (1996). Annual evaporation in this region is estimated at 1.7 m; the lake level could therefore fall some 20 m in a dozen years.
[107] Butzer (1998).
[108] Grimal (1988), Chapter 7.
[109] see the synthesis of Gunter Garbrecht (1996).
[110] and even at +9.7 m for the temple of Medinet Madi, according to Butzer (1998).
[111] Butzer (1998).
[112] Herodotus, The History, Book 2, 149, Translation of David Grene.
[113] Regarding the fact that the “lake of Moeris”, that is to say the entire depression, was excavated artificially, it is clear that our author’s sources were not straightforward with him. See for example the notes of Jean Yoyotte in his edition of Strabo’s The voyage in Egypt, page 142.
[114] Garbrecht and Jarritz (1992). See also Garbrecht (1996).
[115] citation after Redmount (1995).
[116] The classical authors attribute many things to “Sesotris”, as they do to Semiramis of Mesopotamia.
[117] This zone is unoccupied in the Middle and New Empires, as attested to by Jean Yoyotte (see his note 266 in Strabo’s Travels in Egypt (Le voyage en Egypt); see also Carol Redmount, 1995). This author raises the possibility of a canal to Tell el-Rebatah built in the New Empire; the canal would be more to the north, and more modest, than the actual canal of the two seas. The text of Linant de Bellfonds nicely describes the remains of two distinct canals to the west of this site, one on the north flank of the wadi Tumilat valley, the other on its south flank.
[118] See the synthesis of C. A. Redmount (1995).
[119] Grimal (1998), Chapter 14.
[120] Herodotus, The History, book II, 158, Translation of David Grene
[121] Soule (1997), II, 2.
[122] Stela of Chalouf, after Pierre Lecoq.
[123] Bibliotheque historique, book I, 33, 11.
[124] Geography, XVII, 25, Translation of Pascal Charvet, adapted.
[125] We will see in chapter 9 that it is not until the 10th century AD that a true gated lock appears, in China.
[126] Redmount (1995); Mayerson (1996).
[127] after Henri Goblot (1979).
[128] Everyone knows the legend of the Queen of Sheba who is said to have visited king Solomon at Jerusalem. In reality, there is no historical evidence of this queen. Regarding Arabia Felix, the reader can consult, for example, the articles of Jaqueline Pirenne (1979) or the work of Jean-Franfois Breton (1998).
[129] Breton (1998), p. 28. See also Breton, Arramond, Coque-Delhuile and Gentelle (1988) for the wadi Bayhan; also Coque-Delhuile (2001). The earliest settlements at Shabwa date from 1900 – 1800 BC.
[130] after C. Robin (1992), “Inventory of sudarabic inscriptions, I”, Haram 2. The reference to the god Matabnatiyan indicates that this text dates from before the 2nd century BC.
[131] Robin (1992), Haram 49.
[132] citation from Jacqueline Pirenne (1982). The inscription of easement has also been found: “Karib’Il Bayyin reserved (for water flow) around the city of Nasq to its boundaries: 60 sawahit (?)”
[133] Robin (1992), Haram 10. The date of this inscription is doubtless from between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD.
[134] Breton (1998), p. 64.
[135] Ryckmans (1979); Breton (1998), p. 34
[136] sourate 34, verses 15 and 16.
[137] See for example Rachet (1993) for the prehellenistic period.
[138] Sporting games (or rituals) using the bull are practiced by the Minoans in many-roomed palaces that less civilized people might have taken to be frightening labyrinths. But in their frescoes, the Minoans seem rather to express the joy of living.
[139] see J. W. Graham (1987), p. 219-221; N. Platon (1988), volume 1, pa. 350-410.
[140] This is the building that Arthur Evans calls the caravanserai.
[141] according to Rodney Castleden (1990), p. 73.
[142] City situated near the northeast extremity of Crete, to the north of Zakro.
[143] Akrotiri was uncovered in 1967 by Spiridon Marinatos. Thera is the ancient name of Santorin.
[144] after Sylvie Muller (1996, 1997).
[145] Castleden (1998).
[146] Plato, Critias, 118 Translated by Benjamin Jowett http://classics. mit. edu/Plato/critias. html
[147] Homer, Iliad, XXI, 250, translated by Samuel Butler http://darkwing. uoregon. edu/~joelja/iliad. html#b21
[148] Taylour (1983), Chapter 5.
[149] Ibid.; Nicolas Platon (1988), volume 2, pp. 277-292.
[150] This reconstitution is due to E. Zangger. Our source is the article of C. W. Shelmerdine (1997).
[151] Strabo, Geography, IX, 2, 16, Translation of H. C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M. A. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu.
[152] Strabon, IX, 2, 40, Translation of R. Baladie, adapted.
[153] see Guy Rachet (1993), pages 71 and 470, and Nicholas J. Schnitter (1994), pages 11-13. The reports of both these authors are based on the work directed in the 1980’s by J. Knauss, University of Munich. The studies show that, contrary to what had been thought beforehand, lake Copais had never been completely drained by the Mynians.
[154] All these details are known thanks to the work of a German team, directed by Eberhard Zangger, who studied the site between 1984 and 1988 (Zangger, 1994).
[155] The structural details of the dam are provided by Schnitter (1994), from an early study of the dam by Balcer.
[156] from Praxitelis Argyropoulos (1979). See also Trevor Hodge (1995), Chapter 1.
[157] Numerous works mention the tunnel of Samos; among them, see Jacques Bonnin (1984), Chapter 9; Trevor Hodge (1995), Chapter 1.
[158] Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, III, 60, Translation of George Rawlinson http://classics. mit. edu/Herodotus/history. html
[159] Ibid., VII, 23.
[160] Ibid., VII, 128-130.
[161] Aristotle, Physics, VIII, III, Translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye http://classics. mit. edu/Aristotle/physics.8.viii. html.
[162] Ibid., IV, VIII
[163] See Dickinson (1994).
[164] From the Translation of Pascal Charvet, after Strabo, The journey to Egypt commented by Jean Yoyotte (1997).
[165] Our principal general sources concerning the Library and Museum of Alexandria are the works of Geoffrey Lloyd (1973), Luciano Canfora (1986) and the article of Anita Measson (1994).
[166] Sometimes acquisition by force: on transiting boats stories were told of books that were confiscated, only copies to be returned to the owners.
[167] But many fewer books: only the shortest of books could be contained in a single roll. This estimate is discussed in detail by Luciano Canfora (1986).
[168] We recall that Greek science had established that the earth was round in approximately the 6th century BC. The circumference obtained by Eratosthene was 250,000 stadia or 39,690 km, taking the stadium to be 157.5 m, compared to the modern accepted Figure of 40,009 km (Lloyd, 1973)
[169] Vitruvius, X, 7, 4.
[170] These hanging gardens are described by Strabo (Geography, XVI, 1, 5), but not by Herodotus who wrote during the period of the Achaemenid Persians. Thus it seems probable that they were not developed until the Hellenistic period.
[171] A passage in the work of Philon may suggest hydraulic force to turn a lifting waterwheel (noria). But we know this work only through an Arabic transcription, and there is some doubt as to the authenticity of the passage (it could be an addition from the Islamic era, during which the use of hydraulic energy is widespread). We share this doubt. There is no evidence of the use of hydraulic force before the 1st century BC (see further on), and even during the era of Strabo’s voyage in Egypt (25 BC), there are no hydraulic machines on the Nile. His account is perfectly clear on this point (we cite an extract further on).
[172] Heron, “Pneumatics”, I, 16, cit. after Lloyd (1973).
[173] Note the dedication of Archimede’s treatise “The Method”: “Archimedes to Eratosthene, prosperity! I earlier sent you certain theorems that I had discovered, giving you only the statements and inviting you to discover the proofs…” (Vol. III of Works of Archimedes, Edited in French by Les Belles Lettres, 1971, adapted).
[174] On Architecture, book X, 7, 1 – 3, adapted from the Translation of Louis Callebat.
[175] Of floating bodies, Translation of Charles Mugler.
[176] Here, in summary, is how this proposition is deduced from the initial postulate: if this were not the case for a liquid at rest, two points inside the liquid, situated on a sphere centered at the center of the earth would be compressed by different water heights above them, thus “the part that is the least compressed is displaced from its position by a more compressed part; it follows that the liquid cannot remain at rest.”
[177] The Roman engineer Vitruvius writes later, in book VIII of his treatise On Architecture (V, 3): “Perhaps those who have read the works of Archimedes will say that one cannot establish an exact level using water, since Archimedes teaches that a water surface is not a level plane, but a sphere having as its center the precise center of the terrestrial globe. But whether the water surface is planar or spherical, if a horizontal straightedge is laid upon the surface of water in a gutter, then this straightedge, at its left and right extremities, necessarily is at the same distance above the water surface; if, on the other hand, the straightedge is laid on a slope, one end of it will be above the water while the other touches it.”
[178] Gunther Garbrecht (1983) gives an excellent overview. See also Trevor Hodge (1995).
[179] According to Gunther Garbrecht, many of these elements were secretly sold to collectors, but the three pipelines are quite visible at certain locations.
[180] 22 cm according to Gunther Garbrecht (1979), only 17.5 cm according to Trevor Hodge (1995). These dimensions are suppositional, no element of this conduit having been recovered. The exterior diameter of 30 cm is, on the other hand, well established on the basis of the diameter of holes in the blocks that supported the conduit.
[181] Several cities are given with the name of this queen, who was first married to Lysimachus, the king of Thrace.
[182] On a site that had perhaps already been used during the period of the Pharaohs: it is the site called “Head of Nekheb” in Figure 3.1.
[183] Citation from Fabienne Burkhalter (1992). See also Bonneau (1993).
[184] There were crocodiles in the region, and the ancient Egyptians venerated the sacred crocodiles there. This city is today called Medinet el-Fayoum.
[185] In effect, Claude Orrieux (1983) situated the “domain of the 10,000 aroures” between the altitudes +20 m and -10 m. Other studies have situated this elevation at -2 m (Garbrecht, 1996).
[186] One can consider that Apollonius served the king in an intermediate function, between that of a Finance Minister and Prime Minister, according to our references. He very closely followed the agricultural performance, this being the principal source of fiscal revenue.
[187] After Claude Orrieux, The papyrus of Zenon (1983), Chapter VI.
[188] Garbrecht (1996).
[189] Orrieux (1983), Chapter VI.
[190] Ibid., Chapter V.
[191] Strabo, The Geography of Strabo, William Heinemann Ltd., London, 1932, XVII, 1, 30, transl. Horace Leonaard Jones.
[192] Ibid., XVII, 1, 52.
[193] Amaseia is the native city of Strabo. The ancestors of Strabo participated in the dynastic unraveling of the kings of Pontus, and in the wars between the Mithridates and the Romans.
[194] Strabo, The Geography of Strabo, William Heinemann Ltd., London, 1932, XII, 3, 30, transl. Horace Leonard Jones.
[195] Greek Anthology, IX, 418 (Loeb ed. Vol. 3 p 233).
[196] Strabon, Geographic, XVI, 4, 21 (Translation of F. Lasserre), Les Belles Lettres, 1981, adapted
[197] Deletie and collaborators, 1995.
[198] After sources cited by Gilbert Argoux (1994).
[199] This type of pump is used as a fire pump, as well as a bilge pump, up until the beginning of the 20th century (Figure 5.6).
[200] Heron, Pneumatics, II, 11.
[201] Dioptra, cit. after Gunther Garbrecht (1987).
[202] Galien is born at Pergamon, studies at Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria, and then lives in Rome as a renowned doctor (Lloyd, 1973, Chapt. 9).
[203] In Egypt, due to the practice of embalming, human dissection is not taboo as it is in the Greek world. It is thus generally permitted at Alexandria, leading to numerous anatomical discoveries.
[204] Commentary on the Physics of Aristotle, 639, 30, adapted from the translation of Cohen and Drabkin, cit. after Lloyd (1973).
[205] Sartre (1991), p. 418.
[206] Archimedes, Philon of Byzantium and several others will be translated into Arabic. Certain of these works owe their survival to this translation.
[207] The reader can consult the work of Luciano Canfora (1986).
[208] See Goblot (1979), pp. 188-192.
[209] Keller (1976), p. 52-54, 274.
[210] Heurgon (1989), p. 170.
[211] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book XXXVI, 24, Translation ed. John Bostock, M. D., F. R.S., H. T. Riley, Esq., B. A. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgi-bin/ptext? lookup=Plin.+Nat.+toc
[212] Frontinus, Aqueducts of the city of Rome, IV-V, adapted from the translation of P. Grimal. We present this author further on.
[213] Frontinus, Aqueducts of the city of Rome, XXIII, adapted from the translation of P. Grimal.
[214] Vitruvius, On Architecture, VI, 1 and 2, translated by Joseph Gwilt, London: Priestley and Weale, 1826. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html (adapted)
[215] For water in Pompeii, see the two publications of Hans Eschebach (1983). Note that one does not find the distribution scheme described by Vitruvius in the castellum of Nimes, constructed in the middle of the first century AD under the emperor Claudius (Figure 6.17).
[216] Frontinus, “The Aqueducts of Rome”, 16, Translation of Charles E. Bennett in the Loeb edition, 1925 http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/text*.html
[217] Fabre, Fiches, Leveau, Paillet (1992).
[218] Leveau and Paillet (1983).
[219] Rakob (1979); Clamagiraud, Rais, Chahed, Guefrej, Smaoui (1990).
[220] Balty (1987).
[221] This is of course not the Hellenistic aqueduct of Mandradag (Chapter 5), but rather the Roman aqueduct of the Kaikos valley. It comes from the east; even though its elevation is high enough to supply only the lower quarters of the city, it transports a much larger quantity of water than the Hellenistic aqueduct.
[222] This indication is somewhat uncertain (5 cm/km?) It does not correspond to actual slopes in the aqueducts.
[223] Vitruvius, On Architecture, VIII, VI, 1 and 3, translated by Joseph Gwilt, London: Priestley and Weale, 1826. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
[224] See for example Leveau (1979), Fabre, Fiche, Leveau, Paillet (1992).
[225] Vitruvius, On Architecture, VIII, VI, 5 and 6, translated by Joseph Gwilt, London: Priestley and Weale, 1826. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
[226] See Fahlbusch, 1979, 1987.
[227] Frontinus, “The Aqueducts of Rome”, 18, Translation of Charles E. Bennett in the Loeb edition, 1925 http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/text*.html
[228] Some authors mention that after the fire of Rome, Nero, to his credit, took a certain number of positive measures making it possible to use the water in the aqueducts for fire fighting.
[229] Fahlbusch, 1987).
[230] From Frontinus and the commentaries of P. Grimal.
[231] Frontinus, “The Aqueducts of Rome”, 74-75, Translation of Charles E. Bennett in the Loeb edition, 1925 http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/text*.html
[232] Pelletier (1983).
[233] The reader can consult the article of Marcel Bailhache (1979).
[234] Sources: Grenier (1960), Bailhache (1979), Burdy (1979, 1996), Jeancolas (1983), Pelletier (1983), Fabre et al (1992), Andrieu (1997), Andrieu and Cazal (1997), Ardhuin (1997), Jaccotey (1997), Lefebvre (1997), Provist and Lepretre (1997), Rigal (1997).
[235] One reference study, unfortunately disappeared, is that of Germain de Montauzan (1909). Here we have based our discussions primarily on the study of Louis Jeancolas (1977, published in 1983), on the synthesis of Jean Burdy (1979), and on the monograph of Jean Burdy on the Gier aqueduct.
[236] This is the “traditional” dating estimated by Germain de Montauzan; Jeancolas, based on the remains of a tomb that is said to have preceded the aqueduct, estimated that the aqueduct could date from the second part of the 2nd century AD. In this case, the aqueduct would be the most recent of the four.
[237] the water velocity is greater than that of the wavespeed. For more detail, see Chanson (2000).
[238] This is the hypothesis of Louis Jeancolas, from his observation of a piling of the Craponne aqueduct that is particularly reinforced, suggesting that it could have supported the structure at the junction of two aqueducts.
[239] ”Chagnon Stone”, discovered in 1887, visible under the playground of the Chagnon school. A second inscription, apparently identical, was discovered in 1996 along the main path of the aqueduct, but further downstream (Burdy, 1996).
[240] Difference in water level between the head tank and exit basin.
[241] These data have an unexplained anomaly. An elementary hydraulic calculation shows that the ratio of the head losses must be equal to the ratio of the lengths of the two parts of the double siphon, if the pipes are identical and of the same number.
[242] Our principal sources here are the article of Victor Lassalle (1979), conservator of the museum of Nimes, and the work of Guilhem Fabre, Jean-Luc Fiches, Philippe Leveau, and Jean-Louis Paillet (1992) who coordinated, from 1984 to 1990, a program of research on the aqueduct of Nimes and the Pont du Gard.
[243] This new date is that established by Fabre, Fiches, Leveau and Paillet (1992). Earlier, the aqueduct had been attributed to Agrippa, the son in law of Augustus, also presumed father of the first aqueduct of Lyon (around 19 BC). The Brevenne aqueduct is also attributed to the era of Claudius.
[244] The ancient writings refer to an elevation of 76 m for the tapping of the Eure fountain. We have adopted here the more recent estimate of Fabre et al. (1992), namely 72 m.
[245] It is probably to reduce the height of the Pont du Gard that the aqueduct’s slope is steeper upstream than downstream of it.
[246] It is about 150 km long; see Figure 6.32 below (Balty, 1987).
[247] Rakob (1979); Clamagirand, Rais, Chahed, Guefrej, Smaoui (1990).
[248] The bridge has disappeared, but the alignment of the arches of wadi Milliane is still well preserved
[249] Al-Idrissi (12th century), III, 2 Translation of Jaubert.
[250] Vitruvius, On Architecture, X, 5, 1 and 2, translated by Joseph Gwilt, London: Priestley and Weale, 1826. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
[251] Although Vitruvius does not cite Archimedes in this context, he does very explicitly refer to Ctesibios, as shown by the extract that we cited in Chapter 5.
[252] See the notes of Louis Callebat in his edition of Vitruvius’ book X.
[253] See, for example, Jacques Bonnin (1984). See Viollet (2005) for more detail.
[254] Vitruvius, On Architecture, X, 9, 5 and 7, translated by Joseph Gwilt, London: Priestley and Weale, 1826. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
[255] Pliny was born in the summer of 23 or 24 AD, and was, around 70 AD, in the Orient with Titus, to whom he dedicated his book, The Natural History, in 77 AD. He died in 79 AD during the eruption of Vesuvius, attempting to awaken the inhabitants of Pompei.
[256] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book XVIII, 23, Translation ed. John Bostock, M. D., F. R.S., H. T. Riley, Esq., B. A. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgi-bin/ptext? lookup=Plin.+Nat.+toc
[257] See the census of remains established by J.-P. Brun, in Brun and Borreani (1989), p. 308-309, or the census of Wilson (2002), Wikander (2000), or Viollet (2005).
[258] Scare (1995), p. 128; Wikander (2000).
[259] Hodge (1995).
[260] The first description comes from the discoverer of the site, Fernand Benoit, in 1935. We have used here the results of the more recent study of Sellin (1979) for the flour mill itself, and of Leveau (1995) for its water supply.
[261] The first studies of the site supposed that this distribution system was a triangular reservoir. Sellin showed that it was more likely two canals, laid out in the form of a “V”, supported on walls that are still visible today, conveying water into the headraces. We have adopted this hypothesis in Figure 6.24.
[262] Leveau (1995).
[263] Schnitter (1994), p. 59.
[264] Augusta-Boularot and Paillet (1997).
[265] Ibid., p. 60.
[266] Smith (1992); Schnitter (1994); Fernandez Ordonez (1984).
[267] Strabo, Geography, book III, 2, 10, Translation of H. C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M. A. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgibin/ptext? doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D %2319.
[268] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book XXXIII, 21, Translation ed. John Bostock, M. D., F. R.S., H. T. Riley, Esq., B. A. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgi-bin/ptext? lookup=Plin.+Nat.+toc
[269] Domergue (1986).
[270] Schnitter, 1994, p. 70.
[271] Goblot (1979), pp. 117-125.
[272] Inscription found at Timgad: opus aquae paludensis conquiriendae concludenaeque, citation after Goblot (1979).
[273] Sartre (1991), Chapter 5.
[274] Ibid., chap. 10; Bonneau (1993).
[275] Goblot (1979), p. 114.
[276] C. Scarre (1995), p. 77.
[277] Garbrecht (1991). See also Schnitter (1994), p. 74.
[278] Our sources for this dam of Homs are especially Calvet and Geyer (1992), Chapter 3, as well as Schnitter (1994), p. 76.
[279] This is the length indicated by Calvet and Geyer (1992), who thought the length of 2,000 m indicated by other authors to be excessive.
[280] Strabon, Geography, XVI, 2, 19 (Translation of F. Lasserre), Les Belles Lettres, 1981, adapted.
[281] Goblot (1979), p. 130.
[282] Here again, our sources are essentially Calvet and Geyer (1992), Chapter 7, as well as Schnitter (1994).
[283] Sartre (1991), p. 55.
[284] Rome has a monopoly on the importation of Egyptian wheat, prior to the creation of Constantinople.
[285] Strabo, Geography, book V, 3, 5, Translation of H. C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M. A. http ://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgi-bin/ptext? doc=Perseus%3Atext%3 A1999.01.023 9&layout =&loc=5.3.1
[286] Le Gall (1981).
[287] Suetone, Claude, XX, 3 (cited after Redde, 1983).
[288] Santa Maria Scrinari (1983).
[289] Redde (1983).
[290] Le Gall (1981).
[291] It was the construction of the Rome airport that led to the discovery of the remnants of the port of Claudius (Santa Maria Scrinari, 1983). Traces of the concrete used to fill Caligula’s ship were found in the shell of the hull. The west breakwater is visible. The hexagonal basin of the port of Trajan, which was used as an irrigation storage basin in the 19th century, has been restored.
[292] Mayerson (1996).
[293] Sartre (1991), p. 230, after Suetone and Pausanias.
[294] This was a frequent argument in Antiquity. It was used at the time of the Pharaoh Necho in the context of the canal of two seas.
[295] For example, in the aqueduct of Nimes with a discharge of 66,000 m3/day, if one takes as a simplification a constant slope of 0.38 m/km upstream of the Pont du Gard, and a smaller slope of 0.18 m/km between the bridge and the city of Nimes, one finds that the water depth should be approximately 0.96 m along the first segment and 1.3 m along the second one, these values representing the useful depth of the canal (calculations done with a wall roughness of 5 mm and a canal width of 1.22 m).
[296] After Viollet, Chabard, Laurence, and Esposito (1998); the calculated velocities and discharges correspond to a slope of 1.3 m/km and a wall roughness of mean height 3 mm.
[297] Frontinus, “The Aqueducts of Rome”, 35, 36, Translation of Charles E. Bennett in the Loeb edition, 1925 http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/text*.html
[298] Ibid., 73.
[299] From Sanskrit texts translated by Louis Renou, The civilization of ancient India, (1950), pp. 148-151
[300] Needham and Ling, Science and Civilization in China, IV, II (1965), p. 361
[301] Schnitter (1994), p. 34.
[302] Schnitter (1994), p. 98.
[303] Basham (1954).
[304] Porter (1992).
[305] Ibn BattUta, 1995, adapted.
[306] Polybius, Histories, X, 25, Translation of W. R. Paton, http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/home. html
[307] Goblot (1979); Landry (1990).
[308] The Parthian period marks the beginning of the concentration of habitation at Marw, associated, according to Bader et al (1996) with the construction of a dam. Hiebert (1992) places the origin of this dam in the time of the Seljuks.
[309] Marco Polo, Le devisement du monde, XXXVIII, adapted.
[310] Citation from Goblot (1979)
[311] Beaumont (1989)
[312] Schnitter (1994), p. 87.
[313] Al-Muqaddasi, Arab geographer, citation after Hill (1997) in History of Arab science, p. 21, adapted.
[314] Ibn Batthta, 1995, adapted.
[315] Hiebert (1992).
[316] Schnitter (1994), pp. 89-92.
[317] Ducellier, Kaplan, Martin (1990), p. 132; see Sadler (1990) for a detailed study of such a fertile complex in Syria.
[318] Citation from Schnitter (1994), p. 80.
[319] Strabo had already described the difficulty of maintaining the hydraulic system of this region; the reader can refer to the extract cited in Chapter 2.
[320] Al-Baladhori, in “Arab Historians” (Sauvaget, 1988).
[321] Ibn Jubayr (beginning of the 12th century), Relations de Voyage, adapted from the translation of Paule Charles-Dominique.
[322] Ibid.
[323] Al-Baladhori, in Arab Historians (Sauvaget, 1988).
[324] Al-Qalqashandi, Arab author of the 15th century. Citation after Micheau, in History of the Arab Sciences, III.
[325] Berthier (1990).
[326] Zakri (1990).
[327] Safadi (1990).
[328] Ibn Jubayr, Accounts of a Voyage, adapted from the translation of Paule Charles-Dominique.
[329] Ibid.
[330] Zaqzouk (1990).
[331] Haj Ibrahim (1990).
[332] Saliby (1990), Calvet and Geyer (1992).
[333] The dating of the nahr Said and the nature of its use are documented thanks to the investigations of Berthier and d’Ont (1994). The first canal, from at least the 10th century, is the one whose use is described here. A second canal along the same alignment but more recent, may have supported gravity irrigation.
[334] After Kassem Toueir (1990).
[335] Bianquis (1986).
[336] Hill (1997), in History of Arab Science, III, pp. 14 and 47.
[337] Schnitter (1994), p. 82.
[338] Ibn Jubayr, Accounts of a voyage, adapted from the translation of Paule Charles-Dominique.
[339] Ozis (1999).
[340] Smith (1992).
[341] Al-Idrissi (12th century), IV, 1, Translation of Jaubert.
[342] Zakri (1990).
[343] Fernandez Ordonez (1984).
[344] Fernandez Ordonez (1984), Smith (1970).
[345] Al-Idrissi, IV, 1, Translation of Jaubert.
[346] Lagardere (1991 and 1993).
[347] Goblot (1979).
[348] Al-Idrissi (12th century), 31, Translation of Hadj Sadok; a revised translation and analysis of this citation is given in El Fai’z (2005).
[349] Joffe (1989); see also El Faiz (2005).
[350] Brignon, Amine, Boutaleb, Martinet, Rosenberger (12967), p. 187.
[351] Al-Idrissi, 49, Translation of Hadj Sadok.
[352] Brignon, Amine, Boutaleb, Martinet, Rosenberger (1967), pp. 90 and 202; Madani (1999) for the hydraulic network of Fez.
[353] Al-Muqaddasi (10th century); citation from Brignon et al. (1967).
[354] Al-Idrissi, 22, Translation of Hadj Sadok.
[355] Messier (1997).
[356] Lambton (1989).
[357] Goblot (1979), pp. 163-164; Bisson (1989).
[358] Kitab inbat al-miyah al-hafiyya (The art of extracting hidden water), citation from Landry (1990).
[359] Ibid.
[360] Hill (1997), p. 45.
[361] Al-Jahiz, in Arab Historians (Sauvaget, 1988).
[362] Delpech, Girard, Robine, Roumi (1997).
[363] Hill (1997), p. 46.
[364] After a text dated from 1691 (Chhih Pei Ou Than of Wang Shih-Chen, cited by Needham and Ling (1965), p. 560 (adapted).
[365] In Antiquity, China is known, in the West, by two principle names: Seres, derived from the Chinese Si signifying silk, and Sina, that is thought to have come from the name of the Qin Dynasty. The first name arrived in the Occident through the intermediary of the Greek world; the second seems to have come by the route of the Indies (Needham, 1978).
[366] These are the excavations of Kjoumboulak Koum, where the remains of a vast irrigation network have been found in an ancient delta of the Kenya river, in the region of Khotan, after Corinne Debaine – Francfort (personal communication).
[367] According to the Chinese historian Sima Qian, who lived around 100 AD, Historical Memoires (Shi Ji), 123.
[368] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 116.
[369] For example, Robert (1997).
[370] see Blunden & Elvin (1983).
[371] There are two important rivers called Luo; one in Shaanxi, the other in Henan. To avoid confusion, we call the first Luo and the second Lo.
[372] This does not mean there was nothing further to the south. Archaeology has indeed shown the existence of a culture of rice in the basin of the Yangtze (the Blue river) from 6000 BC. But it is clearly in the north that organized civilization, destined to spread, was established (see for example Debaine – Francfort, 1998).
[373] Mencius, citation from Granet (1929), p. 89 in the edition of 1994.
[374] The reader can find deeper analyses of the evolution of Chinese philosophy and science in, for example, Needham (1978), and Gernet (1990).
[375] Extract of a work entitled Lhshi chunqiu, 239 BC. Citation from Needham (1978), p. 117.
[376] Needham (1978).
[377] Joseph Needham is an indispensable reference for those who are interested in the history of science and technology in China. He is the author of a monumental work, Science and Technology in China, to which we will often refer in this Chapter (Volume IV in particular for matters concerning hydraulics).
[378] Extract of Book of Documents (Shujing). Citation after Needham.
[379] The differences between these theories and the dates make it very unlikely that there was any connection between them.
[380] Granet (1929), p. 151.
[381] Gernet (1990).
[382] Herein we use the official modern transcriptions of Chinese into the Roman alphabet.
[383] Sima Qian, Shi Ji 29, English translation of Burton Watson.
[384] The slope of the Yellow River is about 1.1 m/km along its upper course (3,472 km); 0.74 m/km on its middle course (1,200 km); and only 0.11 m/km along the 786 km of its lower course – after Lian Ruiju, Zheng Zhaojin, Hu Jialin (1987).
[385] The main bed of the river, the narrow channel in which the river flows during low-water periods, is formed in the bed’s sediment, and therefore is not significantly super-elevated compared to the plain. The overflow bed, on the other hand, is much wider and is occupied during periods of high water; and can be more than ten meters above the level of the surrounding plain.
[386] After Liang Ruiju, Zheng Zhaojin, Hu Jialin (1987).
[387] Granet (1929).
[388] Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 232, according to a tradition that comes from the Han era.
[389] The hypothesis that Ye is near Handan is taken from the work of Henri Maspero (p. 145) and Jacques Gernet (p. 65). This localization is consistent with the fact that Ye was irrigated by Ximen Bao, using water taken from the Jian, which is precisely what Sima Qian said. It is curious, however, that this city, still active as the center of the cult of the river around 400 BC, was not located on the course of the river itself in this period, since the course had changed in 602 BC. Marcel Granet (Dances and legends, p. 474) situates Ye more to the south, near the place where the ancient course of the Yellow River arrives on the plain and turns toward the north.
[390] After Marcel Granet (1926).
[391] Historical memoires (Shi Ji) of Sima Qian, 126, adapted from the translation of E. Chavannes (citation from Granet, 1926, p. 474).
[392] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 29. See also Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 271, and Zheng (1991).
[393] Needham, Lian, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 271; Zhang (1991); Schnitter (1994), p. 41.
[394] Sima Qian, Shi Ji 29, transl Burton Watson.
[395] After Joseph Needham, Wang Ling, Lu Gwei-Djen (1971); p. 270 in the edition of 1987.
[396] Granet, 1926.
[397] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 29, Transl. Burton Watson
[398] Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 289; Li and Du (2003)
[399] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 29, transl Burton Watson.
[400] Granet (1929), p. 119. Marcel Granet attributes the construction of the Hong canal to Zheng. We prefer the hypotheses of Joseph Needham who believes this canal is older.
[401] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 112, transl B. Watson.
[402] Needham, Lin, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 300 and following in the 1987 edition. See also Granet (1929), p. 140, Zheng (1991), and Schnitter (1994), p. 45.
[403] According to Needham, Li mentions the idea of separation. It is therefore possible that the name of the river – the Li – comes from the structure mentioned here, separating the discharge from the Xiang. One could say the same of the Li escarpment, at Dujiangyan: it is separated from the hill by the notch through which the canal passes.
[404] Extract from a treatise of 1178 called Ling Wai Tai Taby Chou Chhh Fei. Adapted from the citation of Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p 304.
[405] Citation after Blunden and Elvin (1983), p. 81.
[406] See for example Debaine-Francfort (1998), p. 93.
[407] Sima Qian, Historical memoires (Shiji). Citation from Debaine-Francfort (1998). This account is corroborated by the discovery of traces of mercury in the soil of the tomb.
[408] Blunden and Elvin (1983), p. 30.
[409] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 29. transl B Watson.
[410] Ibid.
[411] Granet (1929), p. 142. See also Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 29.
[412] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 110.
[413] Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 281 and following in the edition of 1987; Zheng (1991); Schnitter (1994), p. 41.
[414] Sima Qian, Shi Ji, 29.
[415] Ibid.
[416] Gernet (1990), p. 112.
[417] Siman Qian, Shi Ji, 29, transl B Watson.
[418] Liang Ruiju, Zheng Zhaojin, Hu Jialin (1987).
[419] Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p 234.
[420] Adapted from Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 346.
[421] Needham (1978), p. 58; Dars (1992).
[422] Gernet (1990), p. 128.
[423] Needham and Ling (1965), p. 369.
[424] Ibid., pp. 344-345.
[425] Steens (1989), p. 422.
[426] Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 345, adapted.
[427] Ibid., p. 348.
[428] The Hongze lake is shown on our maps; but is it possible that it did not exist prior to the development works of the 15th century (see the end of this chapter)?
[429] For the work done under the Song, see the work of Jacques Dars (1992), pp. 149-150.
[430] Adapted from Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen (1971), p. 350.
[431] Account of a traveller named Kuang Lu from 1585, adapted from Needham, Ling, Gwei-Djen(1971), p 306.
[432] 1194 according to Joseph Needham, Wang Ling, Lu Gwei-Djen (1971); 1187 according to Liang Ruiju, Zheng Zhaojin, Hu Jialin (1987).
[433] Marco Polo, Le devisement du monde, 149, adapted
[434] Ibid., 136.
[435] Gernet (1990), p. 340.
[436] Schnitter (1994), p. 105.
[437] Adapted from History of the Christian expedition to the kingdom of China, IV, 2.
[438] Ibid.
[439] After Pierre-Etienne Will, in Dictionary of Chinese Civilization, p. 344.
[440] The Book of Wonders, 153
[441] By the traveller and poet Chu Mi, in 1280 – transl by R Strassberg
[442] Needham, Ling (1965), pp. 320-323.
[443] Will (1998), p. 344.
[444] Needham and Ling (1965), p. 323.
[445] Ibid., p. 344.
[446] Ibid., p. 345.
[447] Belidor (1737) describes it under the name of “rosary mill”, as a machine in widespread use.
[448] These dates and facts are taken from Needham and Ling (1965), pp. 356-362. These authors hypothesize that the noria could have been introduced in China as early as the 2nd century, but we do not see strong evidence of this.
[449] Ibn Battuta, Voyages, Translation of C. Defremey and B. R. Sanguinetti, IV, p. 255, adapted.
[450] Needham and Ling (1965), p. 356.
[451] Ibid.
[452] Extract of a work called San Kuo Chih, Needham and Ling (1965), p. 370.
[453] Needham and Ling (1965), p. 400.
[454] Needham, 1978.
[455] From a text dating from the end of the Songs or from the Yuan Empire (Lao Hsueh Tshung Than by Sheng Jo-Tzu), citation from Needham and Ling (1965), p. 560.
[456] Needham (1978), p. 20.
[457] Dars (1992), Gernet (1990), p. 273.
[458] Ibn BattUta, 1995, adapted.
[459] Dars (1992), p. 62 and following.
[460] Guillerme (1979).
[461] Coates-Stephens, 1998.
[462] Champion (1996).
[463] Citation from Zettler (1996).
[464] Zettler (1996), Hoffmann (1996).
[465] After Sylvie Caucanas (1995).
[466] The rapid growth of references to mills in deeds from Picardy in the 11th and 12th centuries may not be significant, for the number of deeds being rediscovered and archived is, in itself, growing rapidly (see Gies and Gies, 1994; Derville, 1994).
[467] Hills (1994); Benoit and Berthier (1998).
[468] Hoffman (1996).
[469] Guillerme (1983).
[470] Such installations on the Charente (France) are mentioned by Jean Chapelot and Eric Rieth (1995).
[471] Gies and Gies (1994), p. 117; according to Belidor (1737), the Garonne mills of the 18th century have horizontal wheels; such is evidently the case for this dam, following the Arab tradition that inspired it.
[472] Gies and Gies (1994).
[473] Boithias and de la Verne (1989).
[474] Al-Idrissi, IV, 2, Translation of Jaubert.
[475] Hills (1994), p. 35.
[476] Ibid, p. 36.
[477] Hills (1994).
[478] Azema (1995).
20 After Bernadette Barriere (1996).
[479] From Karine Berthier (1996).
[480] These projects have been studied by Adriaan Verhulst (1990).
[481] Derville (1994).
[482] Charter relative to draining of the swamp of the Aa; citation from Trenard (1972), p. 99.
[483] Verhulst (1990).
[484] See the article by Jean-Luc Sarrazin (1996).
[485] See the work of Roger Dion (1961) and the article by k«lle Burnouf and Nathalie Carcaud (1999).
[486] Our source for the canals of Roussillon is the work of Sylvie Caucanas (1995).
[487] Fichou, Le Henaff, Mevel (1999), pp. 17-19. According to these authors, the Romans had also built beacons at Dover and at Coruna on the Atlantic coast. We have already described, in Chapter 6, several Roman ports developed on the Mediterranean.
[488] Guillerme (1983); Heers (1990), pp. 300-325.
[489] Lacordaire (1979), pp. 66-81.
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Dates History and Civilizations Hydraulic Science and Technology
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9500 BC
|
Beginnings of agriculture in the Near-East
|
|
|
6500 BC
|
|
First evidence of irrigation (Choga Mami) Earliest evidence of drainage in houses.
|
|
6000 BC
|
Copper metallurgy
Beginnings of agriculture in China
|
First wells in Mesopotamia
|
|
4000 BC
|
|
Development of irrigation in lower Mesopotamia
|
|
First cities in the land of Sumer (Uruk)
|
Development of navigation on the Euphrates. First appearance of the sail (Eridu)
|
|
3500 BC
|
Beginning of the Bronze Age Appearance of writing (Uruk, Suse, then Egypt)
|
Sewers perfected at Habuba Kebira, Sumerian Trading post on the Euphrates Irrigation at Geoksyr in Margiana (Turkmenistan)
|
|
Invention of the wheel
|
Oldest known dams (Jawa)
Earliest water-lifting machine in Mesopotamia (the shaduf)
First evidence of sailboats on the Nile
|
|
3000 BC
|
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, Founding of Memphis Beginning of the Indus civilization Founding of Mari
|
Irrigation in Margiana and Bactria Dams and reservoirs at Khirbet el-Umbashi Irrigated oases in Oman Irrigation system of Mari, navigation canal Dam of Sadd el-Kafara (Egypt)
|
|
2500 BC
|
Maritime civilization of the Cylades
|
Irrigation at Shorughai in eastern Bactria
|
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Beginning of the Minoan civilization in Crete
Legend of Yu the Great on the Yellow River Sargon of Akkad unifies Mesopotamia
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First water supplies in Crete
(Yu was said to have “dug the river”) Irrigation at Marw(Merv) in Margiana
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2000 BC
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1st intermediate period (2180-2040) and beginning of the Middle Empire in Egypt Reign of Hammurabi in Babylon (17921750)
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Hydaulic developmens of Fayoum by Amenemhat III (Moeris)
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Destruction of Mari (1760)
End of the Indus civilization
Beginning of the Mycenaean civilization in
Greece
Bronze metallurgy appears in China; begin-
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ning of the Shang Dynasty, in the basin of
the Yellow River
Hittite Empire in Anatolia
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1500 BC
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2nd intermediate period (1730-1560) and beginning of the New Empire in Egypt End of the Minoan civilization Reign of Ramses II
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Irrigation of the western Bactrian oases Irrigation in the ghouta of Damascus Artificial port of Pylos; drainage of lake Copais
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Hebrews arrive in Palestine
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1200 BC
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The Trojan War
The “Sea People” plunder the Levantine; destruction of Ugarit. End of the Hittites
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Catastrophic inundation at Tiryns; construction of a dam and canal
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1100 BC
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End of the Mycenaean civilization Beginning of the Iron Age
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1000 BC
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Reign of David in Palestine
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900 BC
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Appearance of the Phoenician alphabet
Beginning of the Assyrian Empire
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800 BC
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Founding of Carthage Arrival of the Etruscans in Italy
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Canal of Menua in Urartu (Armenia) Appearance of the qanat
Development of irrigation in Arabia Felix (Yemen)
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700 BC
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Reign of Sennacherib in Assyria (704-681) Reign of Karib’ll Watar in the land of Sheba
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Water supplied to Nineveh; bridge-aqueduct of Jerwan
Dams of lake Rusa in Urartu
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600 BC
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End of the Assyrian Empire (606); reign of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylonia; Saite renaissance in Egypt
The Phoenicians found Marseilles
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Necho II, pharaoh of the Saite Dynasty, constructs the first canal between the Nile and the Red Sea
Thales of Milet establishes that the earth is round
Tarquin the Elder constructs the cloaca maxima at Rome
Dam-reservoir Anfengtang, in the Huai basin (China)
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550 BC
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Birth of Buddha Birth of Confucius
Cyrus the Great enters Babylon (539) and founds the Achaemenid Persian Empire
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Hong Canal, first great navigation canal in China Polycrate constructs the “tunnel of Samos”
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500 BC
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Median wars in Greece (490-480 Beginning of the Republic of Rome (509) Voyages of Herodotus in Egypt and Babylon (460)
Peloponnesian war
Arrival of the Nabatians in Palestine?
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Maryab dam in the land of Sheba (Yemen)
Irrigation at Djouboulak Koum (Taklamakan desert)
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400 BC
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Expedition of the Xenophon’s “Ten Thousand” in Babylon (401)
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Plato adopts the theory of the “four elements”, later taken up by Aristotle
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350 BC
Founding of Alexandria (331). The same year, Alexander the Great enters into Babylon
Laozi (Lao-Tse) founds Taoism (unknown date)
The Qin, coming from the valley of the Wei, occupy Sechuan (316)
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Aristotle creates the Lyceum at Athens
Irrigation system of Sechuan, with its intake works at Dujiangyan
TheAquaAppia, first Roman aqueduct (312)
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300 BC Ptolemy I founds the Museum and Library of Alexandria
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Euclid founds modern geometry
Straton of Lampasaque defines a “vacuum”
Ctesibios invents the fire pump
First reservoir-dams in Ceylon
Zou Yan constructs the Chinese theory of “five
elements”
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250 BC
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First lifting wheels (Philon of Byzantium?) Irrigation works in the Fayoum; dam of Mala’a The Archimedes screw or lima£on Zhengguo irrigation canal in China
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Maurya Dynasty in India (313-180)
The Parthians evict the Seleucides from Mesopotamia
Shi Huangdi, first Emperor of China (221)
Beginning of the Han Dynasty in China (206)
Fall of Carthage (202)
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Archimedes founds hydrostatics
Eratosthene of Cyrene measures the radius of the earth
“Magic Canal”, communication route to southern China
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200 BC Apogee of the Greek kingdom of Bactria
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First water supplies using the inverse siphon, in the Orient then at Rome (Aqua Marcia) Completion of the great siphon of Pergamon
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150 BC Wudi of the Han, Emperor of China (141-87)
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Irrigation and transport canals in China
In 109, the Yellow River is restored to the course
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Rome inherits the Pergamon kingdom (133)
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it had abandoned in 132
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100 BC
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Appearance of the water mill (first evidence in the lands of Mithridate, king of Pontus)
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Death of Cleopatra and annexation of Egypt byAugustus (31)
Strabo writes Geography, Vitruvius writes
On Architecture
Augustus refounds Carthage
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Hydraulic developments of the Nabatians (Petra, Negev desert)
Vitruvius describes the water mill and the noria
The first known arch dam near Glanum in Provence (date uncertain)
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Kouchan Empire in central Asia
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Earth dam at Nanyang (China)
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1 AD Jesus Christ in Palestine
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Pontius Pilate constructs the “pools of Solomon”
and the Jerusalem aqueduct
The Yellow River breaks through its dikes and
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changes course (11)
First mention of the water wheel in China, to power pestles (21), then forge bellows at Nanyang (31)
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50 AD
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Claudius is Roman Emperor (41-54)
Roman Emperors Nero (54), Vespasian (70), Titus (79)
Domitian is assassinated (96); Nerva is elected emperor at Rome
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Numerous aqueducts at Rome, Lyon, Nimes… The “port of Claudius” at the mouth of the Tiber Development of the water mill in Italy (Pliny) Heron ofAlexandria: the aeolipile, discharge calculation in a canal (continuity principle) Frontinus studies the 9 Roman aqueducts and reforms the water distribution system The axial rudder and the modern sail appear in China
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100 AD
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Trajan is Roman Emperor (98-117)
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The “port of Trajan” at the mouth of the Tiber. Numerous aqueducts in the Roman provinces:
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End of the Han Dynasty (185).
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Apamea, Carthage.
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Fragmentation of China
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Invention of the square-pallet chain pump in China
Roman dams in Spain and the Orient Roman flour mill at Barbegal (in Provence)
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200 AD
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Valerius is captured by the Sassanide Shapur
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Dams and Roman qanats in Tunisia, in Cyrenaica (Libya) and in the Orient
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(260)
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Mills at Rome (Janicule, Thermes of Caracalla)
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400 AD
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The Bishop Theophilos destroys the Serapeion atAlexandria (391)
Fall of the Occidental Roman Empire (410)
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450 AD
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Proof of the existence of norias on the Oronte (Apamea mosaic, 469)
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500 AD
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Repeated dike ruptures on the Tigris. Definitive rupture of the Maryab dam (Sheba) Dara arch dam in Anatolia
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600 AD
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Yang Jian reunifies China and founds the Sui
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Dynasty (604)
Tang Dynasty (618)
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The Grand Canal of the Sui and the Tang
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The hegira of Mohammed in Arabia (622)
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Jean Philopon of Alexandria explores resistance
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Taking of Alexandria by the Arabs (640)
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and motion through the air
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650 AD
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Beginning of the Umeyyade Dynasty (661)
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The “Persian” windmill at Seistan
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700 AD
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The Arabs in Spain (711)
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750 AD
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End of the Umeyyades. Beginning of the Abbasids (750)
Founding of Baghdad (762)
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The Chinese armies are beaten by the Arabs
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Chinese prisoners introduce the paper industry to
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at Talas (Ferghana)
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Samarcand (pestle mills)
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800 AD
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Harun al-Rashid founds the great library of
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The Book of Ingenious Mechanisms of the Banu
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Baghdad
Founding of Fez
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Musa brothers in Baghdad Construction of qanats at Madrid
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900 AD Song Dynasty in China (960)
The Ghaznavid Turks (977), then Seljuk Turks (1040) in central Asia
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Invention of the chamber lock in China
Tidal mill at Bassora
Major irrigation works in Andalusia
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1000 AD End of the caliphate of Cordoue (1031) The Almoravides in Morocco Founding of Marrakesh
Beginnings of demographic expansion in western Europe
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First qanats (khettaras) at Marrakesh Al-Karagi explains the flow of groundwater Drainage, drying of polders in Flanders
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1100 AD Beginning of the Crusades
Voyage of the Andalusian Ibn Jubayr in the Orient
The Song are chased out of northern China by the Jurchen (1126), they destroy the dikes
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Al-Khazini picks up the work of Archimedes on hydrostatics
Invention of the post windmill (Flanders or England); development of the tidal mill on the Atlantic coast
First public fountains in the West since the Roman Empire
First levees on the Loire (1169)
Course of the Yellow River shifts to the south of Shandong (1194)
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1200 AD The Mongols raze Samarcand (1219), then Baghdad (1258)
The Mongols occupy Kaifeng (1233), Hangzhou (1276), and in China take the name of the Yuan Dynasty (1271)
Sojourn in China of the Venetian Marco Polo
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Destruction of hydraulic infrastructures in Mesopotamia, Bactria, and Khorassan Drainage of the poitevin marsh (1190-1283)
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(1280)
The Andalusians lose Cordova (1236), Valencia (1238), Sevilla (1248)
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The Grand Canal of the Yuan
Invention of the double-action piston bellows in China
The Yellow River shifts completely to the south (1288)
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1300 AD Voyages of the Tangerian Ibn Battuta (13301350)
Beginning of the Hundred Years’ War (1337) The great plague in the West (1348-1349) The Mongols are chased out of China; begin-
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Dike ruptures on the Yellow River (1327; 1344)
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ning of the Ming Dynasty (1368)
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Arch dam of Almansa (1384)
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1400 AD The Mongols of Tamerlan pillage Delhi (1398) then Baghdad (1401 Great maritime expeditions of the Ming (1405-1433)
Taking of Constantinople by the Turks (1453)
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Dam-reservoir for the upper portions of the Grand Canal (1411)
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Louis XI reinforces and extends the levees of the
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End of the Reconquest of Spain (1492) The Occidental Renaissance
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Loire (1482)
The course of the Yellow River stabilizes (1495) Turk-Mongol dams in Persian and in Afghanistan; arch dams Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) rediscovers the principle of continuity
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That’s pretty much it. Once the second corner is attached, alternate using the knee-kicker and the power stretcher, somewhat as shown in "A Carpet-Stretching Sequence,” below. There’s no one always-best sequence. Keep an eye on what the carpet is doing, and use the tool that seems right. Seen from above, your carpet-stretching movements would resemble something between a tennis match and icing a cake. Back and forth, fine tuning as you go.
Once the carpet is secured to the tackless strips and the transition pieces in the doorways, use an edge trimmer to remove the excess; trimmers also tuck the edge of the carpet to a degree. After trimming the edge, go around the perimeter with a hammer and a stair tool, tamping the carpet between the tackless strips and the wall, or under the baseboard trim. It’s important that the trimmer’s blade be sharp, so change razors whenever the tool drags, rather than cuts.
